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                    	<h2> <a href="#" class="subtitle">Classical Conditioning</a></h2><br />
                        <p class="data"><em><a href="#" class="linkz">Ivan Pavlov</a></em> September 26, 1849 –> February 27, 1936</p><br />
                        <img class="pic2" src="images/stivers_pavlovs_dog.jpg" height="205" width="300" alt="Pavlov's Dog Cartoon" title="Pavlov's Dog Cartoon"/>
                        <p><strong>Pavlov's Dog - "Psychic Reflexes"</strong></p>
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						<p>In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled “psychic reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.</p>
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            <p>Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding.</p>
            <br />
            <p>In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.</p>
            <br />
            <p>Excerpt from: <a href="http://www.learning-theories.com/classical-conditioning-pavlov.html" target="_blank">www.learning-theories.com</a></p>
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                    <p class="com">Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. Translated and Edited by G. V. Anrep. London: Oxford University Press.  <a href="http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Pavlov/" title="Full Text" target="_blank">Full text available online</a></p>
                    
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                    	<h2><a href="#" class="subtitle">Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs</a></h2><br />
                        <p class="data"><em><a href="#" class="linkz">Abraham Harold Maslow</a></em> April 1, 1908 –> June 8, 1970</p><br />
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                        <p><strong>Basic Needs Must Be Met Before Self-Acutalization Can Be Achieved</strong></p>
                    	<br/>
						<p>Abraham H. Maslow felt as though conditioning theories did not adequately acapture the complexity of human behavior. In a 1943 paper called A Theory of Human Motivation, Maslow presented the idea that human actions are directed toward goal attainment. Any given behavior could satisfy several functions at the same time; for instance, going to a pub could satisfy one’s needs for self-esteem and for social interaction.</p>
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            <p>Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has often been represented in a hierarchial pyramid with five levels. The four levels (lower-order needs) are considered physiological needs, while the top level is considered growth needs. The lower level needs need to be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behavior. The levels are as follows (see pyramid in Figure 1 below).<br /><br />
            	<ul style="color:#707070; margin-left:30px;">
              	<li><strong>Self-actualization</strong> – morality, creativity, problem solving, etc.</li>
              	<li><strong>Esteem</strong> – includes confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect, etc.</li>
              	<li><strong>Belongingness</strong> – includes love, friendship, intimacy, family, etc.</li>
              	<li><strong>Safety</strong> – includes security of environment, employment, resources, health, property, etc.</li>
              	<li><strong>Physiological</strong> – includes air, food, water, sex, sleep, other factors towards homeostasis, etc.</li>
              </ul>
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            <br />
						<p><em>Deprivation Needs</em>
						<br />
The first four levels are considered deficiency or deprivation needs (“D-needs”) in that their lack of satisfaction causes a deficiency that motivates people to meet these needs. Physiological needs, the lowest level on the hierarchy, include necessities such as air, food, and water. These tend to be satisfied for most people, but they become predominant when unmet. During emergencies, safety needs such as health and security rise to the forefront. Once these two levels are met, belongingness needs, such as obtaining love and intimate relationships or close friendships, become important. The next level, esteem needs, include the need for recognition from others, confidence, achievement, and self-esteem.</p>
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						<p><em>Growth Needs</em>
						<br />
The highest level is self-actualization, or the self-fulfillment. Behavior in this case is not driven or motivated by deficiencies but rather one’s desire for personal growth and the need to become all the things that a person is capable of becoming (Maslow, 1970).</p>
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						<p><em>Criticisms</em>
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While a useful guide for generally understanding why students behave the way that they do and in determining how learning may be affected by physiological or safety deficiencies, Maslow’s theory has its share of criticisms. Some have noted vagueness in what is a “deficiency”; what is a deficiency for one is not necessarily a deficiency for another. Secondly, there seem to be various exceptions that frequently occur. For example, some people often risk their own safety to rescue others from danger.</p>
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            <p>Excerpt from: <a href="http://www.learning-theories.com/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs.html" target="_blank">www.learning-theories.com</a></p>
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                    <p class="com">Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, pp. 370. <a href="http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm" title="Full Text">Full Text Available</a></p>
                    <p class="com">Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and Personality, 2nd. Ed., New York, Harper & Row. ISBN 0060419873.</p>
                    <p class="com"><a href="http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/maslow.htm">Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs</a> at the University of Hawaii.</p>
                    <p class="com"><a href="http://www.deepermind.com/20maslow.htm">Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs</a> at Deeper Mind.</p>
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